Is it possible for freedom to be enhanced by government interference Essay

Is it possible for freedom to be enhanced by government interference in the lives of individuals - Essay Example These freedoms are seen as essential to the existence and maintenance of a leberal democracy. The position in the UK was very different and owed much to Dicey, and the Human Rights Act 1998. â€Å"†¦.With us the law of the constitution, the rules which in foreign coumtries naturally form part of a constitutional code, are not the source but the consequence of the rights of individuals, as defined and enforced by the courts; that, in short, the principles of private law have with us been by the action of the courts and parliament so extended as to determine the position of the crown and of its servants; thus the constitution is the result of the ordinary law of the land.†(Dicey, A.V, 1969,p.203) In other countries, the rights of the citizen are usually to be found enunciated in general terms in a Bill of Rights or other constitutional document. The effectiveness od such instruments varies greatly. A Bill of Rights is not an automatic guarantee of liberty; its efficacy depends on the integrity of the institutions which apply it, and on the determination of the people that it should be maintained. † Thus, to secure the individual’s right to freedom from unlawful or arbitrary detention, our law provides specific and detailed remedies such as habeas corpus and the action for false imprisonment. The rights which have been afforded in this way are for most part negative rights to be protected from interference from others,†¦.†(Allen, M, & Thompson, B, 2005, p.441) The legal remedies provided for interference with the citizen’s rights have in recent times been overlaid by procedures which are designed to afford not so much remedies in the strict sense of the term as facilities for obtaining independence and impartial scrutiny of action by public bodies about which an individual believes he has cause for complaint, even though

To review the work you have completed in the course and to reflect on Essay

To review the work you have completed in the course and to reflect on what you have learned from it - Essay Example When I consider writing and understanding arguments within a paper, I realize that often papers do not just consist of an essay of thoughts. They also are not necessarily incorporated just of facts and research. The best thing I have learned about writing research papers is that sometimes when writing an argumentative paper, a person has the chance to research two sides of the subject and discuss the pros and cons of it throughout the paper. It allows for someone not to just look at one part of it, but to write a paper that is more informative when someone were to look at two sides of an issues. Some subjects are simply much broader. Through my desire to further obtain goals, it is necessary to continue the steps needed in order to achieve them. This class was part of the stepping stones that I have needed to take in regards to sounding like a more proficient writer and more intelligent person. Although sometimes I have ideas, it is hard to sometimes convey them in a written form. I have been able to better learn how to do that. In regards to some of the areas I think I have grown the most is in my selection of resources. Not only do I realize that I need two sides of a subject in order to tell the complete story behind a paper, I also know that research must be credible. What is always online is not always what should be believed. Some resources that are online are sometimes offered as scholar or peer-reviewed journal entries. Some organizations also offer helpful articles on their websites. When looking for true factual information, you cannot just go to some website and assume it is true. Wikipedia for example can give somewhat of a background about a topic but as far as its credibility, by its name you would think it was like an encyclopedia. Instead of it being an encyclopedia, it is a waste of time because it is not legitimate. I have learned other areas where to look for credible resources. Though

Great Mosque of the Masjid-i-Jami Isfanhan, Iran 1088 Essay

Great Mosque of the Masjid-i-Jami Isfanhan, Iran 1088 - Essay Example The capital city was planned to be near the Friday mosque and due to Seljuks rich authoritative powers, they situated the city to the northern side of the mosque. Figure 1: The Masjid-i Jami, Isfahan According to Oleg (1990), the present mosque was rebuilt again after the destruction by earthquake and fire. It was begun by the Ghurid ruler between 1162 and1202. The mosque was constructed to bring forth the present appearance and design on how to construct mosques. This mosque has been of great concern since there has come times when the mosque was to be demolished by fire from the capture by the Tughril Beg. This capture was accompanied by riot and religious conflicts which led to the destruction of the building before it reconstruction. There were two sects in the riots which included the Hanafite and the Shafi'ite. These riots were the cause of fire which destroyed the ornamental look of the great building. During its construction the mosque was planned and the structure was to be rectangular, inner diameter of a length of 65 meters and a width of 55 meters. There are walls which are used for prayers and cover a large area with several bays. To the west are 7 bays. 4 bays are in the southern side of the mosque and 3 bays to the North West (Oleg, 1990). There are also additional four chambers to the existing bays. The mosque fits the city settings with variety of gates and entrances which allows mass entrance within a short time. The mosque covers a speculated area distinct from the city square. It fits the requirements in construction of a mosque which ensures that it should cover its special area distinct from the main city. The mosque has been the visual landmark to the city of Isfahan with large domes to the northern and the southern side of it. The other neighboring buildings are situated in a manner to show that they give space to the holy mosque. Recently, they have situated a gate to the south eastern side of the mosque. There is an inscription to the space between the building and the gate which mentions Muzaffarid sultan Mahmud who used to rule isfanhan during the year of 1358 to1374.There is another gate to the south which mentions abbas rule and this was designed in the year 1590.A northern gate which is no longer in use describes the eternal rest from Quranic Surah 76 which was constructed in 1366 (Oleg, 1990). A unique forth gate is designed which is no longer in use. It is decorated using bricks unlike the other gates which are colored and has attractive tiles. This gate explains how the mosque was reconstructed after its destruction with fire in the year 1121. The mosque court is well decorated with colored tiles of variety of colors which are; blue, yellow, white and other dark colors. This shows how the residents are united and the degree of harmonious relationships within that area. Bunce (2008) asserts that there are screens installed in the four courts on the passage way of the mosque leading to the sacred places of worship. The doomed chamber has also been constructed with an area of 15 side meters and a height of 30 meters. It was the work of architect Abul fath who did this after the fire tragedy. The southern dome carries inscription of the famous Abu Malik Shah and Nizam al-Mulk.

Political Theatre Essay Example for Free

Political Theatre Essay Modernism came about due to a change in international thinking, with the likes of Darwins evolution theory and the publication of Karl Marxs The Communist Manifesto (1848). People wanted a clean break with tradition, presented through the arts as Romanticism and realism. Consequently, Modernism an artistic experiment and immensely complex movement encompassed the majority of the countries in the Western World, after figures in the avant-garde of the movement, such as Zola and Nietzsche, spread out from the bohemian cities of Paris and Vienna, where Modernism stemmed from. Modernism is an Umbrella term, an overwhelmingly complex phenomenon1, including Naturalism, Symbolism and Theatre of the Absurd among others. It also began throughout the world at different times forming a number of different strands, such as Germanic and Anglo-American Modernism. It is for this reason that the movement is so difficult to pin down to one era. According to Bradbury and McFarlane, it began in 1880 and ended in the 1930s. However, among other critics, I propose that the period stretches further, much closer to the present day, where we are currently in the period of Post-Modernism. It is certain that Modernism began in the 1880s, making a swift transition from Romanticism. It was concerned with a negative consciousness, alienating the audience and creating a sense of disorder. Yet, this quickly gave way to a positive attitude to social advance, seen in Henrik Ibsens plays, highlighting optimism and confidence. Shortly after came the main strand of Modernism, replacing this confidence with a fascination with irrational forces, reflected in Strindbergs The Ghost Sonata. The movement juxtaposes a number of unlikely combinations such as The Enlightenment (18th Century) and Romanticism (early 19th Century); rational and irrational thought; and the naturalistic and symbolic because of its complexity and the range of different styles within it. The central point for Modernism changed at the end of World War I, moving away from France in favour of Central Europe and revolutionary Russia. The change in politics, society and technology called for developments in theatre, the product being Political Theatre. However, the term Political Theatre was first used publicly in 1928, before which it had no official term. Political Theatre, like the rest of Modernism posed a number of experimental, and often controversial ideas. The two main forerunners of Political Theatre were Germans, Erwin Piscator and Bertolt Brecht. Piscator set the ball rolling, adapting plays to have a political edge, while Brecht developed the ideas and formed stronger concepts and theories, writing his own plays with political subject matters. Yet, the practitioners didnt work together in developing the style despite sharing similar beliefs in how theatre should be portrayed, because each man wanted to manage himself. Ironically, this situation is echoed in the politics of the time with the Russian and German Revolutions, where despite the parties seizing power in similar manners and setting out from the same causes, they didnt share views in ideology. At the end of World War I Germany was in a state of economical and political ruin. The Weimar Republic took control of Germany until just before World War II after which Hitler effortlessly seized power. The artists of The Weimar Republic, home of Political Theatre, were anti-Nazi and sought to find policies to suit them elsewhere. As a result, strong allegiances were built with Russia, and many artists of the Modern era migrated there to find jobs. Piscator was a revolutionary Marxist; he disliked the Nazis and produced many political plays attacking the regime. However, Piscators theatre was subject to party orders and the political issues of the time. Brecht, like Piscator was opposed to Militarism and false Nationalism. He despised Nazism and as a result was exiled for fifteen years, where he wrote some of his most famous work including The Good Person of Szechwan and Mother Courage. Yet, unlike Piscator, he never joined the East German Communist Party despite following the Marxist regime, which was mainly based in Russia. Two forms of theatre that had been set up in Russia, largely influenced by the works of Meyerhold, set the basis for Piscators Epic theatre of Politics. Agitation Propaganda (Agit-Prop) aimed to stimulate the audience to take political action, through the use of song and short sketches. The other, Mass spectacles, were vast pageants of revolution involving casts of thousands 2. It has been suggested that Piscators Epic theatre was a fusion of these two elements. However, his theatre is not Naturalism. He uses aspects of previous forms, fitting them into Political Theatre. He is more sympathetic towards Naturalism because it shows real people on stage, but claims the problems is that cries of exasperation stand where we should hear answers 3, this being the difference. However, where Piscator scattered the pieces, Brecht was the one to pick them up and create the jigsaw. Brecht drew his own ideas from Piscators, simplifying and customising them. Piscator wanted to create a new form of theatre, one that engulfed the social struggle, where the Proletariat take power from the ruling class, another link with Marxist Russia during World War I (1917). He wanted his audience, preferably the working class, to take a stand as a result of his theatre. Piscator once said More than ever the theatre must nail its flag fanatically to the mast of politics: the politics of the proletariat Theatre is action, the action of the proletariat4 His theatre aimed to depict reality as truthfully and authentically as possible, providing a documentary style reality to the drama. This had repercussions on future Art, because this idea formed the basis for Documentary Theatre. In order to portray this new theatre, there came a need for a new style of acting, and not only this but a totally different approach to performance. A critic described one of Piscators early productions, Fahnen, as epic, and consequently he built on this idea. Thus the beginnings of Epic Theatre were first outlined in his published book, Das Politische Theater in 1929. It is now appreciated that Political and Epic Theatre go hand in hand. However, the real theorist of Epic Theatre was Brecht. Naturally, he was influenced by Piscator, but used his methods on a much smaller scale. As Willett said The real novelty [of Brechts theatre] and force of his plays lay in the words which simply could not stand such top-heavy staging5 and therefore focussed his work on die Verfremdungseffekt, a technique he created that made the acting strange to the audience. In doing this, Brecht took the emotion out of the production, distanced the audience from the characters, and most importantly made the actors dissociate themselves from their roles. The staging of Political Theatre aimed to enhance the technique and theories of the movement as a whole. It depended on a minimum of scenery and props, following the ideals that the spectacle of the theatre is in the acting and what the actors can portray. Brechts Mother Courage is a good demonstration of how small greedy entrepreneurs make wars possible. Brecht states this in no uncertain terms in the play What they could do with round here is a good war. What else can you expect with peace running wild all over the place? You know what the trouble with peace is? No organization. 6 portraying his views on the senselessness of war. The play tells the story of a woman who runs a sustenance wagon during wartime. Set during the Thirty Years War, it acts as a metaphor to any war throughout time. The play shows that people lose sense of their morals during war, through greed of the army sergeants, but also how Courage remains set on providing for the war despite losing her two sons, and get her materialistic cut, knowing that big profits are not made by little people7. There are certain attributes in Mother Courage that exemplify Epic Theatre, the most dominant of these being the character names in the play for example the Cook and the Chaplain. Brecht avoided giving characters actual names as this added to his concept of the Verfremdungseffekt, stopping the audience from becoming emotionally attached to the character. By naming Mother Courage the audience is subconsciously forced to empathise with her, sharing a powerless social position 8. Brecht also created the idea of gestus. Here, the actor adopts a socially critical attitude towards his character, communicating with the audience as himself rather than as the play character. A good example in Mother Courage is a performance by Brechts wife, Helen Weigel. When asked to identify her son at the end of scene three, the stage directions instruct Courage to shake her head, to show she doesnt recognise her son. However, after doing this, Weigel turned to the audience, opening her mouth in a silent scream. This reminded the audience they were spectators at the theatre, another of Brechts aims, but also had more affect on the audience than any real scream could have. It is for this reason that Mother Courage was both a success and ineffectual for Brecht. Audiences always felt some emotion towards Courage, yet the play was well received. Brecht included a number of songs in his play, and the actors would step out of character to perform these, adding to the Verfremdungseffekt. He wanted the music and text to juxtapose one another, such as when Yvette teaches Kattrin about love in the Fraternization Song. Political Theatre played a key role in the development of Modernism as a whole, Brecht being the most influential character, but was also fundamental in the development of theatre. Remains of Political Theatre can be seen across the Arts today, and the sub-movement has been continued by such political writers as Edward Bond who said that theatre helps us to understand political views, complimenting the work of Brecht and Piscator. Despite being experimental and controversial, Political Theatre is now regarded with great respect and well received. Therefore, Brechts ingenious but contentious ideology came true for him, and the development of Modern Theatre: Dont start from the good old things, but the bad new ones. References 1. Bradbury, M. and McFarlane, J. Modernism A Guide to European Literature Penguin Books 1991 2. http://www. citycol. com/perfdesn/Piscator. htm Erwin Piscator (1895-1966) 3. Piscator, E. The Political Theatre In: http://www. citycol. com/perfdesn/Piscator. htm 4. Piscator, E. In: Willett, J. The Theatre of Erwin Piscator Methuen 1978, p. 121 5. Willett, J. The Theatre of Bertolt Brecht Methuen 1959 6. Brecht, B. Bertolt Brecht Plays Vol. 2 (Mother Courage) Methuen 1962

Relationship of a Father and Son Essay Example for Free

Relationship of a Father and Son Essay The moment where everything changed was the day Manning finally won his first arm wrestling match, his father gained some respect towards him and they both learned valuable lessons. One was manning learned that his father was a great parent in his own way and his father learned that being rough isnt the only way you can show affection to your son. On the other hand, in Shooting Dad†, Sarah Vowell describes the political differences her and he father have. In the house she states that one was a republican and the other was a democratic (171). Every time they would try to start a normal conversation they would end up arguing, and having discussions of who beat who. In the end she matures and realizes that they both are actually very alike. Communication is not as easy as it seems but if you take the time to listen and pay attention to details in life you’ll find that your parents’ views aren’t so far off of yours. The fathers competitive side was his way of showing his communicative relationship with his son. Manning used to be able to enjoy a relaxed game of arm wrestling with his father before but as time passed everything became more real and competitive. He states, I always had to lose Want to try it again? he would ask, grinning. and with squinting eyes he would laugh at me, a high laugh, through his perfect white teeth (163). The relationship between the father and son was a physical rough relationship. The attitude of the father impedes the communication to surpass the bond of strength that they have now. The father was seen as the protector of the family. He was the tough guy, who wouldnt show emotions. The son realized that his father has been the person he was for them. He guided them and helped them in the toughest situations in life. The age difference impeded the positive communication between them. This all started when he was a teen. The mental state of a son differs from the mental state of a father. The awareness, attitude, and strength all change as he matures over the years. As he grew he started working out more and became stronger while the dad was aging. The moment he realized he had matured and now viewed life different was when his dad challenged him to what was his last arm wrestling challenge between them. He felt sorry but the power that he was gaining was too exciting to let go of. When he was small the dad was the one with the power, he was the man of the house but now that he won he has now taken the responsibility to take that next challenge and soon be the adult, the head of household the one to take care of the family. He learned a lesson that changed the communication between him and his father. In my life as Ive grown Ive noticed a difference between the communication of my father and I. Before we would talk about dolls and makeup and now we communicate by being rough. We have competitions about the smallest things like whats that color to who will win the wrestling match or soccer game. At first to me all that was boring and bland, but as he started to get older he distanced himself from me. What stopped us from being able to communicate was the fact that we both had different views in life. I was focused on school and focused on achieving my goal to graduate and his focus was on his work and sports. We would spend limited time together that we had so much to talk about yet we would stay quiet for hours. He slowly became more involved in my school and studies and I would get pointers from him on how to play the sport correctly. Now during weekends we go to baseball games, basketball games, or to the library. Our bond has grown to be a strong relationship. The love between families is always there, it’s just that people choose to show their affection in many different ways. Manning and Vowell explain how they struggled to communicate with their father’s but overall they ended up figuring out that they are similar in many way to their father’s. The form that Manning was able to communicate or interact with his father was through a physical tough relation and the Vowell was through nature as she took photos and as he killed it. Learning to communicate can be the key to life; its just the matter of finding happiness between the people.

Characteristics Of Popular Fiction As Literary Genre English Language Essay

Characteristics Of Popular Fiction As Literary Genre English Language Essay This chapter will investigate the characteristics of popular fiction as a literary genre and will discuss the nature of translation, as well as the difficulties a translator may confront when translating popular fiction. The chapter is divided into two sub chapters. The first subchapter is written on popular fiction. This section examines main features of this literary genre and makes an attempt to define the relationship between popular fiction and popular culture, also the position of popular fiction within the national literary system. The second subchapter is dedicated to translation. In this subchapter, translation is viewed as a movement of a text from one culture to another. To explain this view, I will first analyse the parts of language that lend themselves to cultural specificity. These include collocation, culture-specific word, phraseological units, accent and speech genres. The purpose of this investigation s to ascertain why such cultural specificities are of importance to the original texts, as well as to the transited texts in particular, and why these cultural specificities may pose problems for translators. 1.Popular fiction The last ten years has witnessed the proliferation of popular fiction both in the number of titles and sales. For instance, Mills and Boon publish 70 new titles each month and pulp any unsold copies after three months. (The Independent, 2008). And there have been changes in reading habit; a report on Market Figures from the UK National Literacy Trust cited on the website of the Romantic Novelist Association reveals that there are more people reading for pleasure than ever before (65% now read for enjoyment compared to 55% in 1979). At the international level, Mills and Boon have their books translated into 25 languages and sell in 100 international markets and a stable of 1,300 authors worldwide are working for Mills and Boom. (The Independent, 2008) The following section of this chapter is dedicated to the study of popular fiction, its relationship with popular culture, and its place in the national literary system. 1.1 Popular fiction as a literary genre The term popular fiction has been defined in a number of ways. In New keywords: a revised vocabulary of culture and society (2005) the word popular has the following distinct uses: Something that is widespread and well-liked by many people; Popular in the contrast between high and popular culture; Popular to mean the mass media imposed on people by commercial interest; Popular used to describe a culture made by the people for themselves. In the very initial understanding, popular fiction is novels, which are well-liked by many people and sold out with enormous quatity. In terms of literary products, Gelder considers popular fiction to be the opposite of Literature. (Gelder, 2004 p.11). Gelder stressed his usage of Literature instead of literature by explaining that the latter is a general field of writing while the former means quality literary works written by such writers as George Elliot, Henry James, James Joyce, D.H. Lawrence, Flannery OConnor, Vladimir Nabokov, Tobias Wolff and so on, (Gelder, 2004 p.11). According to Gelder, these masterpieces deploy a set of logics and practices that are different in kind to those deployed in the field of popular fiction.( Gelder, 2004 p.12). In other words, Literature has tangled plots and intense formal artistry (Amis, 2001 p. 327) and its authors focus on discourses of originality and creativity. Popular fiction, on the other hand, is a kind of industrial practice and its writers use the language of industry instead the language of art world. (Gelder, 2004 p.15) For this reason, Gelder suggests that we should distinguish between two terms author and writer. He argues that popular fiction has less to do with originality and creativity, so for popular fiction, the term writer is preferred to author. (Gelder, 2004 p.14). Another trait differentiating a writer of popular fiction to an author of Literature is their aims; while Literature fictions primary goal is the self-expression of an author, the primary focus of popular fiction is its readers. Thi s explains why popular fiction is strongly supported by the Feminist school. Macherey (1978) and Radway (1987) representatives of the Feminist school are of the belief that readers and their level of interest should be the main concerns of any writers if they want to sell their books. Was Ulysses really a great work of literature if almost no one read it for leisure, and if the few who dared found it so taxing? What did writers owe their audience? How easy were we supposed to make things for them? (Gelder, 2004 p. 23) Readers have a crucial role in the development of popular fiction since the success of popular fiction on the market has revealed why a writer should pay more attention to his/her readers and their interest, especially in the world where more and more people are reading for pleasure. At this point, popular fiction has its merit and it is by no means negligible. Popular fiction is the first rate story teller (Hamilton and Jones, 2009 p.vi) since each story tells a tale, which is the reflection of ordinary readers desire or experience and it has ability to touch readers compassion and understanding (Nash, 1990 p.3). The characteristics of popular fiction Popular fiction is the combination of two main elements: conventions and inventions. According to Cawelti, conventions are elements which are usually quite specific to a particular culture and period and do not mean the same outside this specific context. (Cawelti, 1976 p.5) Stereotyped characters, accepted ideas, commonly known metaphors even favourite plot are examples of conventions. Inventions, on the other hands, are elements which are uniquely imagined by creators (Ashley, 1989 p.87). Such inventional elements could be either new kinds of character ideas, innovative plot or creative usages of language. Both conventions and inventions play significant roles in a cultural context. While conventions represent the shared values of a society, inventions introduce new concepts to the society. Conventions maintain the traditions, customs and stability of a defined culture; inventions bring changes, new values. This explains the popularity of popular fictions since readers could find in these novels a piece of their lives, beliefs, and interests. Such findings bring them satisfaction and emotional security (Cawelti, 1976 p.9). At the same time, inventions provide them with new information about the world and the feeling of escape from the ordinary life around them. It is usually criticized that the genres of popular fiction make overuse of the literary formula, which is the synthesis of a number of specific cultural conventions in a period of time (Cawelti, 1976 p.6). Sewell (1984) stated that the value of popular fiction as literature was subsidiary because of limitations in novelty and creativity of formula fiction. However, such formula fiction fills a strong need for escape and relaxation of readers. Readers experience life, death, violence, and sex described in popular fiction in a manner that increases his sense of confidence and well-ordered existence. (Cawelti, 1976 p.16) Furthermore, formula could be considered to be a kind of literary art because of its two features (1) essential standardlization and (2) its relation to the needs of escape (Cawelti, 1976 p.8) The first characteristic of fomula is the essence of all literature. (Cawelti, 1976 p.8). This is the factor creating the common background between a writer and his/her audience. Such shared experience brings basic emotional security to readers and through this readers may find it easier not only to comprehend the plot, but also to interpret between the lines. In other words, when a bridge between a writer and his/her readers is created, it enables artistic communication. (Cawelti, 1976 p.9) The second feature of formula is of importance since such formulaic elements create the ideal world without limitations or uncertainties in readers imagination. (Cawelti, 1976 p.16) This aspect significantly distinguishes between popular fiction and serious literature. The latter describes the real world and forces its readers to face with the uncertain and unsecured reality when recognizing their involvement in characters whose fates reveal limitations and uncertainties. (Cawelti, 1976 p.13-18) The relationship between popular fiction and popular culture The term popular culture has been defined in numerous ways. Mukerji and Schudson give the following definition of popular culture: Popular culture refers to the beliefs and practices, and the objects through which they are organized, that are widely shared among a population. This includes folk beliefs, practices and objects rooted in local traditions, and mass beliefs, practices and objects generated in political and commercial centers. (Mukerji and Schudson , 1991 p.3-4) Bates and Ferri mention even a broader definition of popular culture: Popular culture is the television we watch, the movies we see, the fast food, or slow food, we eat, the clothes we wear, the music we sing and hear, the things we spend our money for, our attitude toward life. It is the whole society we live in, that which may or may not be distributed by the mass media. It is virtually our whole world (Bates and Ferri, 2010 p.3) From these definitions, it is evident that the formula mentioned above is cultural product. Culture is source for conventions, as well as is the background based on which the mutual understanding between a writer and his audiences. On the other hand, formula also has its impacts on culture since it may become conventional ways of representing and relating certain images, symbols. Flemmings James Bond, Doyles Sherlock Homes, or recently Rowlings Harry Potter could be taken as examples illustrating influences of fictional characters on culture. For instance, Gelder (2004) observes the phenomenon of Harry Potter and ascertains that Harry Potter has spread far beyond the novels themselves. Total sales had reached around 250 million across 200 countries, with the novels translated into 60 languages, including Latin and Welsh. The first Harry Potter film adaptation by Warner Bros. became at the time the second-highest grossing film in history (beaten only by James Camerons The Titanic). A huge amount of media spin-offs and merchandizing helped to keep Harry Potter at the centre of global cultural interest. Discovering such powerful influence of this phenomenon, Gelder concludes that The Harry Potter phenomenon has indeed rebranded, and reglobalized, Britain, presenting to the world a country confident in its past but trying harder than usual to work out the possibilities for the future. (Gelder, 2004 p. 34). Apparently, when a formula is widely successful, it has special appeal and becomes significant to the society. The process through which a formula develops and become a pattern of culture could be name cultural evolution. (Cawelti, 1976 p.20) 1.4 The relationship between popular fiction and literary system Despite the widespread and popularity of popular fiction, in academic world, the place of popular fiction and its importance in academia are still not clear. A confession of an interest in popular fiction would be received with doubts and uncomprehending responses. (Ashley, 1989 p.1) While genres of popular fiction-such as romance, thriller, crime fiction, or science fiction have attracted widespread attention from various perspectives, they have not been considered and investigated as disparate categories( Schneider-Mayerson, 2010 p.21). To explain the overlook on popular fiction, Ashley (1989) states that such neglect is the result of the negative attitude of literary criticism, which consider popular fiction to be the second-rate fiction, or a kind of cultural detritus. (Ashley, 1989 p.3) In the sixties of the twentieth century, Tony Bennet introduced the case of popular fiction as both symptom and cause of cultural degeneracy (Schneider-Mayerson, 2010 p.22). And in literary scholars views, whose focus was the language and style used in literature, popular fiction was a meretricious cousin of real literature. (Schneider-Mayerson, 2010 p.30) However, it is worth viewing popular fiction in the polysystem frame in order to reconsider the position of popular fiction in literature, Even- Zohar introduced his concept of polysystem with the idea that literature is an historical phenomenon that should be analyzed by systematic approaches similar to that of other sciences. He describes The idea of structuredness and systemicity need no longer be identified with homogeneity, a semiotic system can be conceived of as a heterogeneous, open structure. It is, therefore, very rarely a unisystem but is, necessarily, a polysystem a multiple system, a system of various systems which intersect with each other and partly overlap, using concurrently different options, yet functioning as one structured whole, whose members are interdependent (Even-Zohar, 1990 p.11) A literary polysystem is envisaged as the interlinking chains of genres and producers which allow us to identify different types of literature and their social purposes. In the polysystem theory, all fields of literary creativity, popular literature, translated literature, childrens literature, as well as semi-litera ry texts, may become subjects of research. The predominant factors in the polysytem concept are stratification, heterogeneity and dynamics. The polysystem theory also assumes a series of centres and peripheries belonging to the various system within polysystem . There is always a struggle among texts created. The goal of such a battle is to move into the centre of the polysystem, but only a small number of them acquire the status of official, high, and become canonical. Texts which move successfully to the central position are those which are of popularity on the market, as well as among readers. Obviously there are some certain restrictions in the polysytem theories such as the blurred boundaries between centre and periphery but the theory of Even-Zohar allows us to observe the movement and social positioning of popular fiction along with discovering the factors which influence the position of popular fiction in the national literary system. The fame of popular fiction as stated in the introduction of this section, together with the certain contribution of popular fiction to the development of current literary and cultural trend, has revealed popular fiction is an integral part of the literary system and it is worth conducting more insightful research to this field. 2. The translation of popular fiction The first section of this chapter has not only examined popular fiction as a literary genre, but also investigated the characteristics of this genre, as well as its relationship with popular culture and its place in the national literary systems. The following section of this chapter studies the challenges, which popular fiction may pose to a translator during the translation procedure. This section will focus on a variety of theoretical approaches available to translators when working with the set of conventions of popular fiction. This is an attempt to demonstrate principles of translation theory, as well as the act of transfer a text from one cultural context to another. 2.1 What is translation? From the dawn of history, to exchange information has always been one of the most important activities of mankind. Thus, it has always been extremely significant to have sufficient information about what is happening in near or distant countries. The more powerful countries prefer to demonstrate their achievements in economics, military and especially arts, as music and painting have universal appeal, which affect human feelings. Literature plays an extraordinarily crucial role among arts. Unlike music and painting, which influence people of different nationalities directly through sight and hearing, literary works often face significant obstacles if their readers native tongues are different from that of the authors. Hence, translation is used as a powerful tool to help target readers and source authors overcome the barriers of language. Translation has a special place in the literary process as translated literature facilities access to the literature and culture of other nations. In fact, translation is a key to the development of a national literary process as by translating works of foreign literature, features (both principles and elements) are introduced into the home literature which did not exist there before. (Even Zohar, 1978 p.47) Hatim and Mason define translation as an act of communication which attempts to relay, across cultural and linguistic boundaries, another act of communication (which may have been intended for different purposes and different readers/hearers (Hatim and Mason, 1997 p.1). The concept of boundaries in this definition of Hatim and Mason, to some extents, is relevant to what Pym calls text belongs in his book Translation and Text Transfer. (Pym, 1992 p.101). Pym (1992) considers that a text has a place, time and original context where it is completely understood. So when a text is translated from one language into another, there are changes of values in those culturally bound elements in order to make a target audience engage with text in a similar way to its original readers. (Pym, 1992 p.102) Pym states that translation can be seen as a special kind of response to things that have been transferred or are meant to be transferred (Pym, 1992 p.18). In other words, translation is an act of moving the text belong from one context to another. It is obvious that Pyms definition is not restricted to the mechanical linguistic work of a translator but it observes translation from various aspects, which can be political situation, social context or historical period. Jacobson (1987), who believes that the meaning of any word or phrase whatsoever is definitely a semiotic fact defines translation as an interpretation a verbal sign. In his opinion, there are three types of interpreting: (Jacobson, 1987 p. 428 -429) 1. Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language. 2. Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language. 3. Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems. Such definition of Jacobson is useful since it offers an understanding of translation within a language, as well as several languages. The intersemiotic translation (the change of one form to another) allows the role for the media in translation process. This might be of importance when taking into accounts popular fiction since several translations of this genre are made only after the successes of their screen adaptations. 2.2 The challenges for the translators of popular fiction Popular fiction, with its sets of conventions as discussed in the previous section, may pose a great challenge for translators. An initial reading of works by Marian Keyes, Cecelia Ahern, Helen Fielding, and Sophie Kinsella would suggest that the following aspects of language in popular fiction may appear challenging for the translators. 2.2.1 Phraseological Units Linguists in the Eastern European tradition have long referred to all formulaic phrases as phraseological units or phraseologisms ( Kunin, 1960; Skrypnyk, 1972; Zorivchak, 1983). The corresponding subfield of study has been designated as phraseology (the study of phrases). In the Western tradition the first comprehensive book on phraseology in English Phraseology: Theory, Analysis and Applications by A.  Cowie was published only in 1998. The term phrase in the Anglophone world is used as a rather general concept. Random House Dictionary defines it as (my highlighting): 1. Grammar. a. a sequence of two or more words arranged in a grammatical construction and acting as a unit in a sentence. b. (in English) a sequence of two or more words that does not contain a finite verb and its subject or that does not consist of clause elements such as subject, verb, object, or complement, as a preposition and a noun or pronoun, an adjective and noun, or an adverb and verb. 2. Rhetoric. a word or group of spoken words that the mind focuses on momentarily as a meaningful unit and is preceded and followed by pauses. 3. a characteristic, current, or proverbial expression On closer consideration it can be observed that the semantics of phrase in English tradition do not differ significantly from the notion of phraseologism which is defined as sustainable combination of words with completely or partially reconsidered value (Kunin, 1960 p.8) Yet, the suffix -ism indicated a more scientific approach towards studying it. The renowned Ukrainian scholar L.  Skrypnyk (1972) defines a phraseological unit (PU) as a lexical and grammatical unit of two or more components which are grouped according to a syntactical model of a sentence or a phrase. (Skrypnyk, 1972 p.17) A PU is characterized by a unified meaning and is reproduced in speech automatically. Hence L.  Skrypnyk draws attention to the defining properties of PUs: A PU is easily retrieved from the praseological corpus of the language by the speakers; The meaning of a PU is unified and cannot always be deduced from the usual meanings of its components; PU functions above the lexical level: the meaning of the phraseological unit contains other categories of thought such as judgment or assessment. V. Teliya (1998), a prominent Russian linguist who has contributed to A.  Cowies book , argues that cultural information incorporated in many phrases needs to be taken into account since phraseological units are also socially-conditioned phenomena. It is a two-way process: they reflect the common consciousness of speakers in a particular community on the one hand and frame the linguistic surrounding of that same community on the other. ( V.Teliya 1998, p.55-57) Phraseological units usually perform a specific function in a specific text situation. Similarly to any other communicative aspect in written speech, they may easily lose this function if uprooted. The following theoretical framework which was elaborated by Prof.  A.V.  Kunin (1960) describes methods applied to rendering phraseological units of a source language by means of a target one: Translating by a full equivalent when every element of the SL PU is preserved in the TL: subject and logical information, imagery, expressiveness and grammatical structure (with some slight modifications). Absolutely equivalent PUs are possible if they originate from one source (Greek mythology, ancient history or literature, Bible and so on) Some minor alterations in the structure or word order do not affect the subject and logical meaning, imagery and expressiveness. Translating by a partial equivalent with partly different components (which means partly different images); the difference between SL and TL partial equivalents shows in the structure of TL variant, in the omission/addition of a component in the TL variant, in the substitution of the component or in the generalization/concretization of the original meaning. Translating by a partial equivalent with completely different components but common expressiveness and subject and logical information; sometimes one SL unit has two or more equivalents of this kind. Translating by a partial equivalent with the same subject and logical information, but different imagery and expressiveness. Translating by a descriptive paraphrase: by single words, by free/neutral combination, by sentence-long descriptive phrase. Translating by means of a calque: copying each component or copying imagery with slightly modified componential structure 2.2.2. Culture specific word Pyms idea of text belongs mentions that any specific text belongs to a certain group of people or situation, so when translation is a complicated task due to a lack of equivalent terms between two different languages. Furthermore, Larson (1984) notices that the receptor audience will decode the translation in terms of his own culture and experience, not in terms of the culture and experience of the author and audience of the original document.(Larson, 1984 p.436-437) In other words, all meaning is culturally belonged and the response to a given text is also culturally belonged. Pym sums up the relationship between culture and translation by stating that it is possible to accept that everything we know about cultures beyond our own has come to us, has been appropriated or assimilated, through a process of transfer and translation. (Pym, 1992 p.17) Obviously, one of the most challenging issues of translation may be found in the difference between cultures. Larson (1984) observes that this difference is reflected in the amount of vocabulary which is available to talk about a particular topic (Larson, 1984 p.95). The two Bulgarian researchers Vlahov and Florin refer to this type of vocabulary as realia and define it as words of the popular language representing denominations of objects, concepts, typical phenomena of a given geographic place, of material life or of social-historical peculiarities of some people, nation, country, tribe, that for this reason carry a national, local or historical color; these words do not have exact matches in other languages. (Vlahov and Florin .1969 p.438) Baker (1992) when mentioning this category of vocabulary points out that the source language words may express a concept which is abstract or concrete, it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or even a type of food. and Baker calls such concepts culture-specific items (Baker, 1992 p.21) These culture specific items are referred to as cultureme in the book Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained by Nord. He defines cultureme as a cultural phenomenon that is present in culture X but not present (in the same way) in culture Y. (Nord, 1997 p.34). According to Newmark (1998), culturally specific words can be recognized easily in a text since they are strongly related with a particular culture and a translator cannot translate them directly. It is of importance for a translator to be aware of such the text belongs features of what s/he is to translate and consider translation to be a process which occurs between cultures rather than simply between languages. When translating culture specific words (realia), a translator is advised to take into consideration the following factors: (Vlahov and Florin, 1980 p. 92-30) Firstly, the nature of the text and the importance of realia in the context should be taken into account. Next it is worth considering the nature of realia, its role in the source culture. Then the nature of target language, as well as the target reader, should also be paid great attention to. In terms of strategies, there are a number of translation procedures available. The following tactics are suggested by Vlahov and Florin (Vlahov and Florin , 1980 p.87-88): Transcription/ transliteration; Translation calque /half calque; Adaptation of foreign realia; Substitution by target realia; Functional analogue; Description, explanation, interpretation; Contextual translation 2.2.3 Collocation Collocation can be defined as the tendency of certain words to co-occur regularly in a given language (Baker, 1992 p.47). At one point, this has to do with propositional meaning, the meaning which is understood from the relationship between a word or an utterance and what it refers to (Baker, 1992 p.286). On the other hand, meaning cannot always account for collocational patterning. For example English speakers say to pay a visit but not to perform a visit. It can be said that the patterns of collocation are largely arbitrary and independent of meaning (Baker, 1992 p.48). The translation of collocations may be problematic, especially when it comes to culture-bound collocation. Such collocations as happy hour, Bank Holidayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ appear quite frequently in popular fiction since they reflect everyday life and culture. Baker states that such culture-specific collocations express ideas previously unexpressed in the target language. Like culture-specific words, they point to conce pts which are not easily accessible to the target readers. (Baker, 1992 p.60-61). In the end of chapter 2 of her book In other words: a course book for translation Baker mentions these below strategies which can be used for translating collocation: Translation by a collocation of same meaning and form; Translation by paraphrase; Translation by a collocation of similar meaning but dissimilar form; Omission. 2.2.4 Speech genres Bakhtin introduces the term speech genres in his book Speech genres and other late essays. Bakhtin s idea is that each individual has their own way of using language, which is realized in the form of concrete utterance, either oral or written. The utterance produced reflects not only a situation -thematic content, communication goal style but also the compositional structure. These factors have equal role in the creation of an utterance and they are all determined by reception of an individual. (Bakhtin 1986, p. 60) In other words, it is not situation or language that vary, but the ways in which individuals put words together to describe a specific situation. This finding of Bakhtin is of importance because it may help to define the identity and origin of a person. In this way, the use of speech genres in a novel has culturally specific characteristics since a translator may have good commanding of a foreign language but still s/he may feel helpless in certain spheres of communicati on precisely because they do not have a practical command of the generic form in the given spheresà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ this is entirely a matter of inability to command a repertoire of genres of social conversation. (Emerson, 1990 p.275) Leppihalme refers to the gaps of understanding caused by an inability to comprehend speech genres in a particular situational and cultural context as culture bumps (Leppihalme, 1997 p.viii) In novels, speech genres are used as a tool to indicate the origin, cultural and educational background of a character. One of the most well-known forms of speech genres is Allusion, which is a reference, explicit or indirect, to a person, place, or event, or to another literary work or passage. (Leppihalme, 1997 p.6) As culture-bound elements, the meaning of allusion can be conveyed only by familiarity, as well as, solid understanding of source culture. According to Leppihalme, this literary device is used to call attention to ones learning or wider reading; as well as to enrich the work by bringing new meaning and association; or to characterise people, suggest thoughts or unconscious impressions or attitudes in characters; also to increase the significance of ones work. (Leppihalme, 1997 p.7) A llusion in particular, as well as speech genres in general should be treated with great care in order to preserve its purpose of use. A translator is required to have solid knowledge of the original culture in order to understand the usages and convey

Sir Isaac Newton vs Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz :: Sir Isaac Newton Essays

Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz are two of the most supreme intellects of the 17th century. They are both considered to be the inventors of Calculus. However, after a terrible dispute, Sir Isaac Newton took most of the credit. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) was a German philosopher, mathematician, and statesman born in the country of Leipzig. He received his education at the universities of Leipzig, Jena, and Altdorf. He received a doctorate in law. He devoted much of his time to the principle studies of mathematics, science, and philosophy. Leibniz's contribution in mathematics was in the year 1675, when he discovered the fundamental principles of infinitesimal calculus. He arrived at this discovery independently at the same time along with the English scientist Sir Isaac Newton in 1666. However, Leibniz's system was published in 1684, three years before Newton published his. Also at this time Leibniz's method of notation, known as mathematical symbols, were adopted universally. He also contributed in 1672 by inventing a calculating machine that was capable of multiplying, dividing, and extracting square roots. All this made him to be considered a pioneer in the developement of mathematical logic. Sir Isaac Newton is the other major figure in the development of Calculus. He was an English mathemetician and physcist, whose considered to be one of the greatest scientists in history. Newton was born on December 25, 1642 at Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in Lincolnshire. He attended Trinity College, at the University of Cambridge. He received his bachelor's degree in 1665 and received his master's degree in 1668. However, there he ignored much of the universities established curriculum to pursue his own interests: mathematics and natural philosophy. Almost immediately, he made fundamental discoveries in both areas. Newtons dicoveries was made up of several different things. It consisted of combined infinite sums which are known as infinite series. It also consisted of the binomial theorem for frational exponents and the algebraic expression of the inverse relation between tangents and areas into methods that we refer to today as calculus. However, the story is not that simple. Being that both men were so-called universal geniuses, they realized that in different ways they were entitled to have the credit for â€Å"inventing calculus†. Both engaged in a violent dispute over priority in the invention of calculus. Unfortunately, Newton had the upper hand, considering that he was the president of the Royal Society. He used this position to to select a committee that would investigate the unsolved question. Apparently, Newton included himself on this committee (illegally) and submitted a false report that charged Leibniz with deliberate plagiarism. He was also the one who compiled the book of evidence that the â€Å"society† was Sir Isaac Newton vs Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz :: Sir Isaac Newton Essays Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz are two of the most supreme intellects of the 17th century. They are both considered to be the inventors of Calculus. However, after a terrible dispute, Sir Isaac Newton took most of the credit. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) was a German philosopher, mathematician, and statesman born in the country of Leipzig. He received his education at the universities of Leipzig, Jena, and Altdorf. He received a doctorate in law. He devoted much of his time to the principle studies of mathematics, science, and philosophy. Leibniz's contribution in mathematics was in the year 1675, when he discovered the fundamental principles of infinitesimal calculus. He arrived at this discovery independently at the same time along with the English scientist Sir Isaac Newton in 1666. However, Leibniz's system was published in 1684, three years before Newton published his. Also at this time Leibniz's method of notation, known as mathematical symbols, were adopted universally. He also contributed in 1672 by inventing a calculating machine that was capable of multiplying, dividing, and extracting square roots. All this made him to be considered a pioneer in the developement of mathematical logic. Sir Isaac Newton is the other major figure in the development of Calculus. He was an English mathemetician and physcist, whose considered to be one of the greatest scientists in history. Newton was born on December 25, 1642 at Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in Lincolnshire. He attended Trinity College, at the University of Cambridge. He received his bachelor's degree in 1665 and received his master's degree in 1668. However, there he ignored much of the universities established curriculum to pursue his own interests: mathematics and natural philosophy. Almost immediately, he made fundamental discoveries in both areas. Newtons dicoveries was made up of several different things. It consisted of combined infinite sums which are known as infinite series. It also consisted of the binomial theorem for frational exponents and the algebraic expression of the inverse relation between tangents and areas into methods that we refer to today as calculus. However, the story is not that simple. Being that both men were so-called universal geniuses, they realized that in different ways they were entitled to have the credit for â€Å"inventing calculus†. Both engaged in a violent dispute over priority in the invention of calculus. Unfortunately, Newton had the upper hand, considering that he was the president of the Royal Society. He used this position to to select a committee that would investigate the unsolved question. Apparently, Newton included himself on this committee (illegally) and submitted a false report that charged Leibniz with deliberate plagiarism. He was also the one who compiled the book of evidence that the â€Å"society† was